Euro Disney Case Essay

1. Using Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions as a point of reference, what are some of the main cultural differences between the United States and France? Some of the main cultural differences according to Hofstede’s are that France has a high power distance meaning that in these countries people blindly obey the orders of their superiors. In contrast of the United States, which have a lower power distance meaning, that they have lower strata of the workforce but often with highly qualified people. Another Difference is the Uncertainty Avoidance both countries have. For example, France has a strong Uncertainty Avoidance, meaning that their cultures have a great deal of structuring of organizational activities, more written rules, less risk taking by managers, lower labor turnover, and less ambitious employees. Unlike the United States culture that has a weak Uncertainty Avoidance meaning that these cultures are more willing to accept risks associated with the unknown that life must go on in spite of this. As the last difference according to Hofstede’s is the principle of Masculinity, that consist of countries that their dominant values in society are success, money, and things. This principle applies to the United States. As for France, they have a Femininity principle meaning that their dominant values in society is to care for others and quality of life. 2. In what way has Trompenaar’s research helped explain cultural differences between the United States and France? As for Trompenaar’s research both countries are high in Universalism meaning that the focus is more on formal rules than on relationships, business contract are adhered to very closely, and people believe that a deal is a deal. The difference among the countries begins with the High Individualism for the United States. This views people regarding themselves as individuals. For Individualism people ideally achieve things alone, and they  assume a great deal of personal responsibility. In contrast of France Communitarianism referring to people regarding themselves as part of a group. For Communitarianism decisions typically are referred to committees, people achieve things in groups, and they jointly assume responsibility. The study of these differences is similar to Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions however not quite the same for some countries. Another difference between both countries is that the United States has an Achievement culture. This culture refers one in which people are accorded status based on how ell they perform their functions. Achievement culture gives high states to high achievers meaning that people who work more at the end they will have a pay off for their extra effort. In contrast of France that has an Ascription Culture that refers to which status is attributed based on who or what person is. In this type of culture an individual may have high states because of the longevity in a company or simply has a better status for the people they know. In other word if they have connections they get a better status. 3. In managing its Euro Disneyland operations, what are three mistakes that the company made? Explain. The mistakes Euro Disneyland operation had were mainly handling French Culture: 1. Alcohol ban in a culture that having wine is like a religion 2. Disney strict appearance code for employees. The European culture is more open with piercings, tattoos etc. Disney made a handbook of detailed rules on acceptable clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry. This upsetting because French complained that Americans were so insensitive with French Culture 3. Difference in language where the French firms felt strangers in their own country. As an example to this, having French workforce means that their language or accent is not going to be perfect to English speakers or â€Å"Disney Culture.† To exemplify more, whenever an employee tried to practice â€Å"Howdy!† in a cowboy environment, he mispronounced the word to something close to â€Å"Audi.† This could have created a major problem with Disney’s sponsors like Renault. Also Disney placed its first ads for work bid in English, leaving small and medium sized French firms feeling like foreigners in their own land. 4. Based on its experience, what are three lessons the company should have learned about how to deal with diversity? Describe each. One of the lessons Euro Disney faced was putting the park in charge of a French local (Bourguignon). Something that the Tokyo Disney top management handles it well. At the beginning an American was in charge of operations in Euro Disney. Even though he was well identified with the culture is not the same having a local in charge. Second they learned that they had to adapt their â€Å"Disney Culture† more to the European Culture. By trying to change policies like allowing wine for dining purposes and get rid of some uptight dress codes. Third they learned that with seduction they could establish god relations with local residents that would benefit the park in the long run.

Politics in Texas Essay

The Texan republicans stand for the ideas of individualism. That entrepreneurship is the key to unlocking the powers of the economy, according to the Republican Party. The Democratic Party respects the notion of small business and entrepreneurship as it also strives to encourage jobs for hard-working laborers. In conjunction with this, the Democrats want businesses to be more flexible and technologically friendly, along with finding creative, environmentally-sound ways of promoting business. The Green Party also claims to support the power of the small business, but they have a more environmental approach that specifies several details in which companies should abide. In accordance with this, the Green Party wishes to limit free-trade in exchange with environmentally and labor friendly trade. They also specify a set wage that would allow an individual to afford a one-bedroom apartment on thirty-percent of their income. In opposition to a heavily regulated economy, the libertarians seem like the Republican Party, but to a more extreme. They are against most taxation, including income taxes since they define a wage or salary as a trade of money and service, not an equity. I believe this to be a proper point. How can people promote the economy when a chunk of their wages is taken by the government? The Libertarians are also opposed to the use of eminent domain which I agree with. It should not be up to the government to choose how someone’s property may or may not be used.

Describe the roles of amino acid R-groups to the transmembrane Essay

Describe the roles of amino acid R-groups to the transmembrane channels that allow passage of molecules and ions across lipid bilayers - Essay Example On the other hand, the hydrophilic amino acids are usually established on the outside of proteins and in the lively cores of enzymatically lively proteins. This means that the natural world of some amino acid R-groups permits enzyme reactions to take place. The imidazole ring of histidine permits it to function as either a proton contributor or acceptor at physiological PH. Therefore, it is mostly discovered in the hasty heart of enzymes. Hemoglobin is the best example of membrane channel that plays a vital role in movement of molecules and ions. The aptitude of histidines in hemoglobin is responsible for cushioning the H+ ions ionization of carbonic acid in red blood cells (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer 55). This is the main factor of hemoglobin that that permits it to swap over O2 and CO2 at the tissues or lungs respectively. The most influential alcohol of serine and threonine in addition to the thiol (-SH) of cysteine, permit these amino acids to take action as nucleophiles throughou t enzymatic catalysis. Moreover, the cysteine thiol is capable of developing a disulfide union with other cysteines: From the chain above, the easy disulfide is recognized as cystine. The development of disulfide unions between cysteines available within proteins is significant to the development of lively structural spheres of influence in a huge number of proteins (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer 60). The process of disfulfied union between cysteines of distinct polypeptide chains of oligomeric proteins performs a significant function in commanding the structure of complicated proteins such as the insulin receptor. All the above mentioned processes takes place in membranes and the fact that certain little molecules go through easily while others find it hard to go through makes the membranes of the R groups to be considered selectively permeable (Berg, Tymoczko and Stryer 67). This is because when several sugars of equal molecular size are available both

Megans law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Megans law - Research Paper Example here are also cases in which it is applied permanently, so that whenever the individual moves, they have to notify local police and law enforcement that they have done so. Failing to register or update in this manner is considered to be a felony under Megan’s Act. This law was put into action after the murder of Megan Kanka, a young child. After this child was murdered by a sexual predator who was living nearby (the parents professed to have no idea), her parents circulated a petition that gained almost 500,000 signatures (Megan’s, 2010). The law was passed, and New Jersey, Kanka’s home state, was the first state to enact Megan’s Law. Overall, Megans Law provides two information services that are made available to the public: notification of sex offender registration, and notification of the community. As noted above, â€Å"The details of what is provided as part of sex offender registration and how community notification is handled vary from state to state, and in some states the required registration information and community notification protocols have changed many times since Megans Law was passed† (Megan’s, 2010). Many people support Megan’s Law because it appears to be a no-nonsense, zero-tolerance, tough-on-crime policy. They also feel more at ease when they know that sexual offenders have to register with local authorities, so that the community can have more information. From the total harm perspective, Megan’s Law can be supported from the position that it decreases the total harm to society by making vital information about child sexual predators available to parents and families. Community notification and involvement is seen as positive in most media and scholarly presentations of the law, and generally, the law-abiding public can be seen to increase in their information access and comfort level, due to the law. However, there are also possible dark sides to Megan’s Law. That some states use the law to notify about not just

Evaluation and Application of Thesis Case Study

Evaluation and Application of Thesis - Case Study Example Apart from product differentiation and cost-reduction methods, organizations have to invest in product mobilization to ensure that their products are effectively distributed and are accessible in the market. The design of supply chains has become a complex issue due to the difficulty that many organizations are currently experiencing in attempting to predict the demand of their goods. Competition has further been fuelled by new market entrants and the existence of alternative products in the market that have greatly affected the customer preferences and tastes. Consequently, the ability of an organization to establish an effective product pipeline will have a direct impact on the viability of a business system in terms of revenue and profit generation. Managers have to choose from a number of various pipeline strategies to apply in their business environment, which is the main challenge they have to face today. While selecting a product supply mechanism, the main aim of managers is u sually to expand their coverage in the market and to improve the accessibility of their goods. Hewlett-Packard (HP) is one of the organizations that have been faced with market forces that are threatening to push it out of computer sales business. With the proliferation of computer technology, many companies have flooded the market to capitalize on the high demand that over time has maintained an upward trend. One way that this company would maintain its over one billion customers that it currently controls over the globe, the company has to define a modest pipeline strategy. The most appropriate pipeline strategy for this company would be optimization of material and product flows in the market. This demands that the company determine a digital content management initiative to ensure that they keep it simple and efficient to provide information to their esteemed customers concerning their products. To satisfy the demands of their customers, this company requires adopting lean or gr een production strategy that has become a feature of successful manufacturing companies. Multinational Corporations have resorted to lean production as part of modeling their product flow paths within the diversified market environment. As Hsu, Tan Kaman and Koeng (2009) point out, the success of a firm passes through the control of its supply chain and that this strategy has become a core element in international markets. The supply chain management improves the flow of materials and information from the source to the delivery points; thereby satisfying the demanding needs of the customers. In essence, employing lean strategy will have a significant benefit on the manufacturer as well as the customers in the market. A unique benefit of the lean design is its ability to improve product flow through time and cost based strategies as part of improving the operational effectiveness. In lean strategy, the manufacturing company aims at reducing cost by reducing the amount by product asso ciated with manufacturing of a particular good. In addition, the company optimizes its production cost by reducing any business operations that have no associated contribution to the business revenues. By minimizing the cost of production, a company that employs a lean strategy will be able to reduce its prices per unit products and hence attract more customers in their organization. The link between lean design and supply chain is that it is much easier to push

Major Crimes in the United States Research Paper

Major Crimes in the United States - Research Paper Example 500). The structure of the criminal justice system was patterned after the concept of federalism. Hence, police power is predominantly a stately matter, permitting all states to pass legislation required to protect the health, morals, safety and the general wellbeing of the people (Gaines & Miller, 2010, p. 12). Despite of laws and incarceration of criminals in correctional facilities, crime is continually a challenge for law enforcement. This is grounded on reported country totals of 1,092,455 cases of violent crimes and 6,390,018 cases of property crimes in the US for the year 2010 (FBI, 2011). However, surveys have revealed that many crimes were unreported, which only goes to show that more crimes are being committed than are generally reported, otherwise known as the dark figure or crime (Cole & Smith, 2007, p. 25). This paper examines the major crimes reported in the US with the end in view of lifting nuggets of wisdom from the statistics. Violent Crimes Major crimes in the Unit ed States are classified into two broad categories: violent crimes and property crimes (Hess & Orthmann, 2011, p. 83). Violent crimes are defined as offenses which involve the use of force or threat of force, according to the Unified Crime Report (UCR) Program (FBI, 2009a, para. 1). Violent crimes are crimes against persons (Gaines & Miller, 2010, p. 7; FBI, 2009a, para. 1). Four offenses comprise the category of violent crimes: murder and negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault (Gaines & Miller, 2010, p. 8; FBI, 2009a, para. 1). Figure 1 presents the frequency distribution of violent crimes in the US in the form of a pie chart. Figure 1. Frequency distribution of violent crimes in the US in 2010 (computed from FBI, 2011). As depicted in Figure 1, the top two violent crimes on the national level are aggravated assault and robbery, with 56% and 38% of the total violent crime cases, respectively. Only about 5% of the crimes involve forcible rape and appr oximately 1% involves murder. Violent crime figures (i.e. 1,092,455) in 2010 decreased by about 17% from 2009 figures (i.e., 1,318,398) (FBI, 2009a, FBI 2011). States with the highest violent crime statistics are California (17%), Texas (13%) and New York (11%). On the other hand, states with the lowest violent crime statistics are Montana (0.05%), South Carolina (0.08%), and South Dakota (0.09%) (Computed based on FBI, 2011). A correlation analysis comparing the relationship between state population and violent crime statistics per state revealed that there is a significant near perfect relationship between the state population and the incidence of violent crimes, or in other words, the higher the population, the higher is the incidence of violent crime in the state (r = 0.965; p < 0.001). However, when the violent crime rates were calculated by taking the percentage of the violent crime cases per state against state population, it was revealed that the top three states are Arkansa s (1.52%), Maryland (1.46%) and Michigan (1.40%); and the

Assessment Activity Week 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Assessment Activity Week 6 - Essay Example One could say there is lack of synergy in the functioning of the company from a global perspective. The other issue in the case is that there is a disconnect with the way things are carried out, this is so because there are too many subsidiaries and fragmented teams that handle tasks which can be done by a single, core team. This would lead to information symmetry with is not the case currently. Although there is no doubt that there is going to be value addition to the company in the long run, to see significant results in the short run priorities have to be changed and looked at from a global perspective. The process has to be modified and restructured a bit to incorporate the current issues. For example the strategic team should look at the option of allocating funds based on criticality of the goal served and how the project would impact the overall development of the company. In fact a good way to evaluate a project is to see its weighted average score across the various goals sp ecified in the NRG.

Are football clubs profit maximisers or utility maximisers Essay

Are football clubs profit maximisers or utility maximisers - Essay Example team sports tend to generate, make this particularly fertile territory in which to explore the perennial questions about incentives, effort, risk and reward, which lie at the heart of all economic inquiry† (Dobson & Goddard, 2001, p. 1). Although, the stark similarities of concerns between economics and sports made the union possible, Peter Sloane (2006) noted that the apparent similarities should not be over emphasised, as there are intrinsic dissimilarities between sports and conventional industries. As we try to understand the goal of each football clubs involve in the world of sports, perhaps, the more important matter that we have to take under consideration is the idea that these clubs are in themselves govern by economic and marketing principles that are basically govern by researches and studies that give credence to the claim made by each the theories. But are the theories really of minimal flaws? To begin with, if one will go over the literature on profit maximization and utility maximasation theory, regardless of the strand of both theories, on thing that is noticeable in the study is the used of mathematical formulations in support of their claims. I am raising this point on the supposition that in the world of Economics and Finance, a theory is made more tenable and believable if there are strong mathematical formulations and explanations that support the theory (Cubitt & Sugden, 1994; Friedman & Sandow, 2003; Bouchard, 2002;Lee, 1979:Portes 1968). And again, this is regardless of the position that one may be taking. In the entry of mathematics in the realm of the market, of finance and economics, one can get the sense that one is no longer dealing with an erratic and unpredictable realm. Rather, the presence of mathematical explanations for the credibility of the theory regarding the movements of the market underlie the fact that studies undertaken in order to understand the movements and dynamics of the market is , perhaps, as precise as some

Finance and Surplus Funds Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Finance and Surplus Funds - Assignment Example Finance companies can facilitate Carlsons expansion by providing long-term loans to meet the company's fund requirement that is used to buy the long-term assets such as machinery, equipment, land and building. The funds provided by financial institutions are essential to finance the fixed assets procurement necessary for the expansion of the existing business or for totally a new line of business. Commercial Banks are depository institutions. Deficit units such as Carson are provided loans by commercial banks. Commercial banks have large assets generated by providing the deposit accounts to surplus units. The financial institutions look at financial leveraging of the firm such as debt ratio, debt-equity ratio, interest coverage, that decides company’s capacity to pay the interest and original debt over a long period of time. Obviously, that hinders Carson to access more debt funds for further expansion and growth. The primary market can support expansion program of Carson by absorbing their issued stocks and bonds to the common investors at the predetermined price. The money thus garnered falls under the category of equity or debt as the case may be and can be used to meet the expansion needs. The financial institutions work as financial intermediaries especially, when the market is imperfect. When the market is perfect, information is available free to buyer and seller and market settles at the lowest possible cost of funds discarding the need of any financial institutions for they cannot give any benefit to either buyer or seller. Every commercial bank would like to review the risk profile of the business and the company to whom they have provided the line of credit. Accordingly, it is quite obvious that in case of Carson undertaking any large expansion, commercial banks would like to know how the line of credit provided by them will be used and in what way the new expansion will alter the risk profile of the company. Banks would also  like to assess about how the expansion plan of Carson will affect the fund security and the ability of the Carson to pay them the due interest on the borrowed funds.

Hotel and Outdoor Petting Zoo Essay Example for Free

Hotel and Outdoor Petting Zoo Essay There are many steps to planning a vacation to Kalahari Resorts, Ohio. First of all, you must ask yourself how many days would you like to spend at Kalahari. Once you decide, you must figure you want to book a flight or drive. Depending on certain dates, flights can be really expensive if booked during peak vaction months. Driving on the other hand, is not for everyone. It can be very expensive with the price of gas, and very tedious depending how many hours you will spend in the car. The next step is to find pricings on the hotel with their website, Kalahariresorts.com. This website provides package deals that include: the room, access to the aracde, and also access to the pool. When choosing your room, you need to pick the perks you want, such as a full kitchen or a veiw of the outdoor petting zoo. Now that you have chosen your means of transportaion and room, you must determine how much money you would like to spend while are there. This will help set a budget and keep and keep your finances in order, but also prevent you from spending too much. Always remember to have fun at Kalahari and make it a stay youll never forget. There are many steps to planning a vacation to Kalahari Resorts, Ohio. First of all, you must ask yourself how many days would you like to spend at Kalahari. Once you decide, you must figure you want to book a flight or drive. Depending on certain dates, flights can be really expensive if booked during peak vaction months. Driving on the other hand, is not for everyone. It can be very expensive with the price of gas, and very tedious depending how many hours you will spend in the car. The next step is to find pricings on the hotel with their website, Kalahariresorts.com. This website provides package deals that include: the room, access to the aracde, and also access to the pool. When choosing your room, you need to pick the perks you want, such as a full kitchen or a veiw of the outdoor petting zoo. Now that you have chosen your means of transportaion and room, you must determine how  much money you would like to spend while are there. This will help set a budget and keep and keep your finances in order, but also prevent you from spending too much. Always remember to have fun at Kalahari and make it a stay youll never forget.

Definition And Concepts In Building Refurbishment Construction Essay

Definition And Concepts In Building Refurbishment Construction Essay Although building cannot have an infinite economic life, it is widely acknowledged that the process of fabric and structural decline can be slowed down by routine maintenance programs. Occasionally, a shortsighted slumlord will direct a property manager to operate a property to get the maximum returns in term of rental. This usually occurs when an owner refuses to make any repairs except those necessary to keep the property operating. This type of owner treats building as an operating asset in state of an investment. Nowadays, this kind of situation is getting lesser and lesser cause more and more office building is being held as investment by public listed company of good reputation. This is true especially for building acquired and maintained by REITs company as the property portfolio. Nowadays, more building owners treat their property as an investment. This is especially true when they engage the service of a property manager. In this situation, property is being exploited by achieving the best return on capital possible and generates productivity from occupier. At the same time, the property will also be well managed in order to add capital appreciation to the property. Failure to maintain the property regularly can impair the structural integrity of the fabric, accelerating the decline in investment returns until the point where refurbishment options need to be considered (John R. Mansfield, 2000). Technically, refurbishment is the process of making as good as new, including essential modernization and renovations. But, Quah suggests that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“refurbishmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  has become a generic, interchangeable term, apparently distinguishable from other specialist activities. Therefore, a clear definition of refurbishment is being quoted from other researchers to clear the doubts. Egbu (1996) considers à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“refurbishmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  to encompass rehabilitation, alteration, adaption, extension, improvement, modernization and repair work carried out to an existing building to permit it reuse for various specific reasons. This definition tells the main reasons of refurbishment, which is to make sure a building is able to operate continuously, and offer better services that suit the demand of the tenants. Normally owners have different perspective when it comes to decide whether to refurbish or redevelop their office building. There are also no rules in the decision-making for refurbishment or redevelopment of office building. But, Reginald Lee from university of Reading has formulated three important issues when it comes to the stage when decision is required. The existing condition of the building needs to be surveyed. If the structural was sound, refurbishment might be considered. If it was very dilapidated, demolition and redevelopment mould probably be the only realistic course of action. This might occur where the structure has been allowed to deteriorate over a no of years, beyond useful refurbishment. The third issue concerning desirable level of refurbishment cannot be considered in isolation. As construction resource is limited and required a large amount of capital, a correct decision is important. Refurbishment by arresting decay extends the physical life of a building, thereby delays and defers expenditure on redevelopment to a large extend this will depend upon the degree to which it is possible to modify the internal layout to accommodate changing tenants requirements there is thus a relationship between the adaptability of the design, building life, maintenance costs and new construction cost. Older building do not make the best possible use of space for modern-day use. Normally in Malaysia, a design efficiency of 75% is considered the desirable norm of an office building. New high rise building aim to have a design efficiency of above 75% whereas buildings constructed between 1920 and 1970 have at best 60% to 70% efficiency. In order to adapt a building for today processes, refurbishment may become so intensive to make redevelopment a better alternative. Better use of space can often be achieved by a completely new design. If the existing space available is insufficient, the possibility of extending the premises may be considered. If space around the site does not permit this approach, some form of redevelopment may become essential. Te efficiency ratio (net let table area divided by gross floor area) of older buildings. A well conceived building today can have an efficiency ratio of about 80% If building cost is expected to rise drastically in the future, it is better not to postponed the decision for redevelopment by choosing refurbishment. The expected rise in building cost will have an effect on the decision

Essay --

In the book Playing with the Boys: Why Separate Is Not Equal in Sports by Eileen McDonagh and Laura Pappano, the authors examine how sex segregation is present in sports today. McDonagh and Pappano distinguish the difference between voluntary sex segregation and coercive sex segregation and what the main problem today in sports is. Along with the types of sex segregation, they also identify something that is an example of sex segregation along with the causes and effects of it. Sex segregation in sports can lead to gender inequalities in sports of all levels. Coercive sex segregation differs from voluntary sex segregation in that with coercive females are assumed to be inferior to males, which contributes to the segregation. With voluntary, females willingly self-segregate themselves into things like all girls schools or an all women’s sports team. The Three I’s associated with coercive are inferiority, injury, and immorality. The Three I’s are false assumptions that contribute to sex segregation in sports. Inferiority refers to the idea that females are inferior to males, injury r...

The Soviet Union and the Legacy of Communist Rule Essay -- Politics Po

The Soviet Union and the Legacy of Communist Rule The December of 1991 marked the end of the Soviet Union—and with it, an entire era. Like the February Revolution of 1917 that ended tsardom, the events leading up to August 1991 took place in rapid succession, with both spontaneity and, to some degree, retrospective inevitability. To understand the demise of Soviet Union is to understand the communist party-state system itself. Although the particular happenings of the Gorbachev years undoubtedly accelerated its ruin, there existed fundamental flaws within the Soviet system that would be had been proven ultimately fatal. The USSR became a past chapter of history because it was impossible to significantly reform the administrative command system without destroying its very core, and because Gorbachev's "democratic socialism" was unattainable without abandoning the very notion of Soviet socialism itself. As R. Strayer had pointed out in Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse?, the USSR was held together under Communist rule with "a m ixture of ideological illusion and raw coercion" (Strayer, 36). The Gorbachev era saw both of these two bases of the party-state's power falling apart. By the mid-1980s, urbanization and higher education had transformed the Soviet society from a relatively homogenous one into one that was considerably diverse with a sizable middle-class. Educated and exposed to Western culture, the professionals and the white collars were far more likely to understand the Soviet Union's weaknesses and the system's fallacies than their counterparts decades ago. Coupled with the intelligentsia's anti-establishment tradition (as embodied by Alexandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakhorav), this new class of economic elite had ... ... an enormous void in Russian society. The old party-state machine was demolished, yet no new concrete political system had risen in its place. The old ideology was discredited, yet no newfound conviction could unite the country. After the 1991 coup, even Gorbachev was powerless to steer his Mother Russia. To this day, the old legacy of Communist rule haunts the nation still. Works Cited Aslund, Anders. How Russia Became a Market Economy. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. 1995 Brown, Archie. The Gorbachev Factor. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996. John L. H. Keep. Last of the Empires. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995. Strayer, Robert. Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse? New York: M.E. Sharpe. 1998. Tucker, Robert C. "Lenin and Revolution". The Lenin Anthology. Edited by Robert C. Tucker. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. 1994. The Soviet Union and the Legacy of Communist Rule Essay -- Politics Po The Soviet Union and the Legacy of Communist Rule The December of 1991 marked the end of the Soviet Union—and with it, an entire era. Like the February Revolution of 1917 that ended tsardom, the events leading up to August 1991 took place in rapid succession, with both spontaneity and, to some degree, retrospective inevitability. To understand the demise of Soviet Union is to understand the communist party-state system itself. Although the particular happenings of the Gorbachev years undoubtedly accelerated its ruin, there existed fundamental flaws within the Soviet system that would be had been proven ultimately fatal. The USSR became a past chapter of history because it was impossible to significantly reform the administrative command system without destroying its very core, and because Gorbachev's "democratic socialism" was unattainable without abandoning the very notion of Soviet socialism itself. As R. Strayer had pointed out in Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse?, the USSR was held together under Communist rule with "a m ixture of ideological illusion and raw coercion" (Strayer, 36). The Gorbachev era saw both of these two bases of the party-state's power falling apart. By the mid-1980s, urbanization and higher education had transformed the Soviet society from a relatively homogenous one into one that was considerably diverse with a sizable middle-class. Educated and exposed to Western culture, the professionals and the white collars were far more likely to understand the Soviet Union's weaknesses and the system's fallacies than their counterparts decades ago. Coupled with the intelligentsia's anti-establishment tradition (as embodied by Alexandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakhorav), this new class of economic elite had ... ... an enormous void in Russian society. The old party-state machine was demolished, yet no new concrete political system had risen in its place. The old ideology was discredited, yet no newfound conviction could unite the country. After the 1991 coup, even Gorbachev was powerless to steer his Mother Russia. To this day, the old legacy of Communist rule haunts the nation still. Works Cited Aslund, Anders. How Russia Became a Market Economy. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. 1995 Brown, Archie. The Gorbachev Factor. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1996. John L. H. Keep. Last of the Empires. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995. Strayer, Robert. Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse? New York: M.E. Sharpe. 1998. Tucker, Robert C. "Lenin and Revolution". The Lenin Anthology. Edited by Robert C. Tucker. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. 1994.

Renoir

In this paper I will be writing about the â€Å"Gaze† which is present within impressionist artist Renoir’s painting The Umbrellas. The gaze gives us a lot of insight of the figures and the relationships we may be viewing. In the case of Renoir’s work the insight the viewer gets is the actions and preemptive thought before a meeting of two people looking on as a spectator in the very same crowd. By using blurring techniques of background figures Renoir succeeds in creating a scene that appears like a glance, like a moment in time the viewer stepped upon and intently stared. The gaze present in Renoir’s, The Umbrellas (c. 1883) is meant to provoke the conception of assessing a situation from afar, and endeavoring on the chance of action before your subject of interest notices your intentions. Renoir places the viewer in the role as the spectator watching the scene of a young woman carrying a basket, lingering behind her with his full attention is a man as if leaning in to speak to her or offer her shelter from the rain, as she has none. This woman, attractive, is gazing away from the man towards the direction of the viewer eyes glazed, vulnerably clutching her dress. To her right in the crowd the spectator makes eye contact with small girl continuing the gaze as her mother is watching her intently, and sure enough would follow her daughter’s gaze catching the viewer staring. This gaze makes full circle whilst the spectator awaits this chance to approach the young women passing by the crowded street vastly filled with brush stroked umbrellas. Renoir plays with the projection of a moment in time of a man meeting a woman or two people who will miss the opportunity and pass by. The gaze freezes this brief moment in time making it as if the viewer themselves are within the crowd weighing the situation before it occurs trading â€Å"on contemporary anxieties of the necessity of weighing up a situation and acting quickly in order to evade detection.. †(Smith, 40). True to the impressionist way being that â€Å"the impressionists attempted to paint what the eye actually sees, rather than what the brain interprets from visual cues. (Gilbert, 459) Renoir painted The Umbrellas as a glance over a crowd and with the face of the flaneur man behind the young woman of interest was clearly less detailed and blurred. Blurred as if glanced over quickly an uninteresting figure to the viewer, whilst the woman is in clear view and draws the eye of the spectator as if they were in the crowd and caught off guard by her presence. The way the woman’s â€Å"eyes seem removed from her immediate surroundings: their mysterious searching look contrasts with the carefree, wide-eyes glance of the little girl and the protective downcast glance of her mother. (Kern, 33). As well as how Renoir positioned the body of the woman looking outwards in contrast to the innocent and straightforward stance of the little girl connect and contrast one another. This contrast continues the gaze from person to person connecting the spectator to the scene creating the feeling of anxiousness and fear of being caught staring whether by the mother or the young woman of interest herself. As well the little girl holding the hoop is very prominent as the viewer would see her staring at him and take notice not only to her but to the mother that they would fear would also soon catch the gaze. This piece by Renoir is very much successful in creating a feeling of anxiety in the spectator due to his use of placement of figures and brush stroke technique of blurring out non-prominent figures. Though most of all it is successful due to the gaze that lies present in the image of this busy city street view. As one looks upon this painting you feel as if you yourself have stopped at a moment in time to look upon the scene contemplating your next actions. As the gaze reaches the end of its journey you feel an urge to look away before a figure feels your stare upon them and turns from the painting and looks at you.

Women In Leadership: The Place Of Assertiveness And Recognition Of Human Rights

Introduction The assumption that women leaders tend to be aggressive has been largely upheld, in Africa. That is not to say that all women leaders in Africa are aggressive; arguably, however, most women leaders tend to exhibit aggressive behaviour creating an impression of aggression within women leaders regardless of the reality. Assertiveness is a key quality expected from leaders or managers (Philips, 2002; Ames and Flynn, 2007) particularly those who have a lot of responsibilities. Those who aspire or are appointed as leaders are expected to posses and exhibit such qualities creating a self fulfilling prophecy. Assertiveness is, therefore, viewed as a dimension describing the tendency by people to speak for, defend, and act in their interest, values, and goals (in Ames and Flynn, 2006). A leader therefore, should be capable of planning, strategically; communicating clearly to other members of staff and rendering support to staff for effectiveness and success, but that is not always the case, particularly when it comes to female leaders. The questions, therefore, are; what are the factors responsible for lack of assertiveness among women leaders, in Nigeria and why this often manifests itself as aggression rather than effective assertivenessA further question Is raised as to whether it is only seen as an issue for Nigerian women leaders, or is it a general disposition of the female genderThis essay, therefore, will give a brief chronological account of my career, identify the problems encountered that informed the choice of assertiveness and recognition of human rights (which are interconnected) and will therefore be discussed as part of one concept, namely, assertiveness. Related literature on assertiveness will be discussed and the factors responsible for its absence in women leaders. The importance of assertiveness for women in leadership positions will be reiterated. An action plan for my career will be highlighted and then concluded. It is worth stating, at this point, that the entire essay is going to be based on my personal experience and my context, except where otherwise mentioned. The essay will refer to females as women and males as men, because the essay is gender related. My career I started my teaching career at the age of twenty three, in a nursery and primary school, in Kaduna state of Nigeria. I had just finished a diploma course in Special Education at the University of Jos, in Nigeria, and was enthusiastic about joining the teaching profession. Although the school where I was employed to teach was neither a special nor a mainstream school, I was eager to put my teaching skills to good use. It was an unpleasant start, as I had to write and teach thirty-six lessons every week; the lesson notes must be ready by the end of Friday, because the head teacher will mark them over the weekend and then give them back to teachers, on Monday morning. Although the work was demanding, my major problem was the relationship between the head teacher and staff. I eventually left on health grounds. My second experience was after my undergraduate studies at the same University. After my undergraduate studies, I went through the one year compulsory National Youth Service Corp (NYSC) which I completed in Kaduna Polytechnic and was offered employment a year after the exercise. I served under a male Head of Department (HOD), during my NYSC, but met a woman head when I was employed as a staff member. I had a heavier work load than most senior teachers, which the HOD attributed to my level and the fact that I did not have other responsibilities. This alerted me to the notion that leaders were often perceived t ho ave ‘different’ responsibilities In short, while the HOD made me the departmental secretary, welfare committee secretary, assistant registration officer and assistant exams’ officer, the work load did not change showing a lack of leader understanding of the precise role. She eventually finished her tenure and another woman was elected. The third experience I had was another woman HOD who was elected into the position by other members of staff of the department, in conformation with the new rule in the institution; previously, headship was by appointment by the school management team. I had thought, at this point, that I would be relieved of some of my responsibilities, if not all. However, when the new head assumed duty, instead, my duties increased as she would call me to do just about anything, if was within sight and would then show no appreciation for the work done. This raised issues of how work was attributed to staff and how leaders look towards achieving a balanced workload for all staff, something which had been lacking in my experience. Problems identified The previous paragraphs have given a brief account of my career; this paragraph will focus on issues I consider problematic in staff relationships with women leaders. I have observed, from a distance, that the behaviour of women leaders, across the board, (e.g. church, unions, societies, etc.), in combination with my personal experience and have come to the conclusion that most women leaders are unnecessarily difficult to work with and often aggressive. I have heard some men endorse that opinion, as well. The three women I have worked with have a striking similarity in their behaviours all ultimately leading to aggression, which is characterised by being domineering, sarcastic, hard-edged, strident, impatient and blaming others. Furthermore, they were not assertive in their relationship with staff; they had no respect for staff, although they demanded respect from the staff, in turn. They acted as if they were superior beings who wanted to be revered; they were, in my opinion, ruthle ss to other colleagues and staff, generally. They were aware of their powers and exercised them to the fullest. Such women leaders tend to favour those they liked and victimise others. My first head teacher would tell staff members to report her, if they had the nerve; she knew nothing would be done about it; she always had things her way. These leaders make derogatory statements to staff, oblivious to who is listening; it was a common occurrence. Sometimes it happened right before the students; which could engender disrespect for teachers by their students, a situation that is avoidable. This was seen as a consistent way of operating by female leaders. I recall my first day at work with amazement; I was disappointed at the way in which I was handed some necessary items I needed and a list of dos and don’ts by the stern looking head teacher. It felt as though it was purely an exercise of power, although I had thought that the head teacher might have problems at home, but came to realise that that was how she operated, in general. With my second employment, the HOD just collected my letter of employment and acknowledged it and that was all. I was not assigned an office, nor was there an orientation of any kind; I had to learn by trial and error or by asking other members of staff. I felt, from inception, that there was an enormous problem regarding leadership. This is because there was a lot of manipulation and no room for collaboration. In one of the cases, there was an outburst from the teachers when the HOD’s attitudes became unbearable; almost all staff members passed a vote of no confidence in the HOD and forwarded it to the school management. Although they had their good sides, it was however outweighed by their aggression. These kinds of dispositions seem to make staff members become emotionally exhausted and stressed, especially those who are passive, which affects the productivity of staff as a whole and does not create a team mentality. Literature Review Having given a brief history of my career and also identified what posed as challenges for me and other staff members, because of the disposition of the head teachers, it becomes imperative to look at what literature says about the assertiveness of women in leadership. Assertiveness is a critical issue, in Nigeria’s leaders; however, there is little or no literature in that regard concerning the concept, generally, and in regards to women, specifically. Assertiveness is a concept that are hardly mentioned and likewise the need for well managed assertiveness and the ignorance exhibited in this regard seems to affect the majority of the people, to a large extent, which leaders use to their advantage. These two concepts of assertiveness and human rights, as mentioned in the introduction are interconnected and inseparable, because assertiveness is all about knowing one’s rights and acknowledging the rights of others. It is this latter factor that is particularly relevant in the discussion. For instance, Back and Back in Armstrong (1991) stated that assertiveness is â€Å"standing up your for own rights† and, at the same time, taking into account the rights of others. In other words, know your rights and your limits, in order not to violate another person’s rights. The two concepts will therefore be discussed as one, namely assertiveness. Assertiveness is the ability of an individual to act clearly, honestly, and to communicate directly (Dickson, 2012) and is considered a critical component of leadership effectiveness (Ames and Flynn, 2006). In other words, for leaders to succeed and advance in their leadership roles, they must be assertive. As stated earlier, one outstanding quality of assertiveness, I believe, is being aware of one’s rights and respecting the rights of other people; its importance in the work place and in life generally cannot be over emphasized. Despite this there are difference between assertiveness and aggression which needs to be recognised in this discussion. Assertiveness can be proactive (acting rather than reacting) and reactive (responding rather initiating), both verbal and non-verbal (by means of words and action) (Ames and Flynn, 2006; Ames, 2009), depending on the situation or circumstance. Ames and Flynn (2006), in research which they carried out (not specifically on women) tried to establish the relationship between assertiveness and leadership and came up with some interesting concepts; high and low assertiveness. High assertiveness, they opine, results in what they term instrumental reward, meaning that leaders compromise their relationship with colleagues and subordinates in order to attain goals. Low assertiveness, on the other hand, results in social reward, which involves compromising attainment of goals in the quest of maintaining a good relationship with staff. Belonging to either of these two levels of assertiveness is already a challenge, as the leader in question would have to compromise one thing, in other to achiev e the other; presumably the two are of utmost importance. The question is, if being assertive is a positive quality that leaders should possess, what are the factors or barriers that prevent leaders from exhibiting assertive behaviours? Factors responsible for women’s lack of assertiveness Internal and external stimuli (Oplatka and Tamir, 2009) are words used in describing reasons for women leaders’ lack of assertiveness, according to research carried out by Oplatka and Tamir. They posit that women who aspire for leadership positions (internal stimulus) are more likely to exhibit assertiveness and display more confidence than those who have waited for the positions to be offered, or were asked to apply (external stimulus). One factor, according to these researchers, that stands in the way between women and assertiveness is their unwillingness or unpreparedness to be leaders or school heads. Furthermore a lack of understanding of the role of a head may also create difficulties in harnessing natural leadership skills towards creating an efficient team working environment. Another factor, as suggested by Coleman (2002), is family responsibilities. Married women have enormous family responsibilities; leadership in the work place adds to it and seems to affect their advancement in the office in a way that a male counterpart may not experience. It would not be strange for a woman to walk into the office and pick on the first person she sees, not because of anything they have done wrong, but possibly as a result of a pending issue with spouse, children or any family member; it happens frequently in my context. Contrary to Coleman’s suggestion, Hall (1996) in a study of six women head teachers, in the U.S, found women leaders (American) to be effective in their roles as leaders. Hall discovered that these women, although in different schools, showed some similarities in their leadership styles, which he attributes to family experiences from childhood, especially roles they played as girls who were taught by their mothers. These school heads had a smo oth working relationship with their staff; there was collaboration, openness, and shared decision-making, with no attempt made to dominate; they use this strategy, only when other means have failed (Hall, 1996). This distinction between the US experiences and the experiences in Nigeria could be due to the fact that the US is generally more accepting of women in powerful positions and society supports full time female workers in the US in a way that is not as available in Nigeria. Fear of failure and insecurity, according to Oplatka and Tamir (2009), is another impediment to women leaders’ advancement and exhibiting qualities considered to be assertive. What are they afraid of or insecure aboutGender related insecurities, because of male dominance, ( Oplatka and Tamir, 2009), gender stereotype, hostility towards women (Bickel, 2001) were identified as possible reasons responsible for the non-assertive behaviour women leaders exhibit. Poor self-image was suggested as affecting women’s attitude and effectiveness as self-confidence is largely linked with the developmental process and experiences an individual encounters, is exposed to, has interacted or associated with (Morgan et al, (1981); Mathipa and Tsoka, 2001); which Mathipa and Tsoka argue is, to a large extent, dependent on the type of education women receive. The type of education either builds an individual’s confidence or creates a lack of confidence, which heightens fears and inse curities among women. Creating a greater general acceptance of women in management roles would reduce the need to be overly aggressive when asserting the management position. Mathipa and Tsoka (2001) reiterated that women are not born with a poor self-image, but are culturally educated to respect and uphold others. This is especially true in Africa, where a woman is supposed to be ‘seen and not heard’. However, those who live in urban areas exhibit more confident behaviour than those in rural areas. In consonance with this, Mathipa and Tsoka, Milgram (1970 in Ames 2009) stated that assertive behaviour differs between those in urban and rural settings and within regions of a country depending on their experiences within society (Cohen and Nisbett, 1994, in Ames, 2009). This is a clear pointer to the role culture plays in the issue of women leaders’ assertiveness. Discussion of issues The amount of literature available on the issue of assertiveness of women leaders is an indication of the challenges faced by women leaders. The discussion will, therefore, be centred on the themes revealed in the literature. Women leaders have two main issues to contend with; the fact that they are women and also the need to be accepted as effective leaders. The world is a man’s world, as is the common belief, in certain regions, which is why the disposition of a woman in leadership is crucial. In an article based on South African women, lack of assertiveness was mentioned as a barrier to women’s advancement to leadership positions, particularly in the education profession (Mathipa and Tsoka, 2001). In my opinion, the same is applicable to Nigeria. Women would naturally not prepare and plan for leadership, in Nigeria; however that is not to say that some women do not aspire to leadership roles. There is a perception that a ‘woman’s place is in the home’; most women were brought up with that belief, with the constant reminder that the man is the head (natural leader) of the family. The underlying fact is that they do not plan nor prepare for leadership (Oplatka and Tamir, 2009). I would argue, therefore, that men do not go through any formal training or even plan (sometimes) to be leaders, but their approach to leadership is different; again, that is not in any way saying that all men are good leaders or heads. A male head, for example, would hardly come to the office in the morning with an attitude, because of an incident that happened in the home. The male leader is also more comfortable in their position as it is perceived to be more ‘normal’ and there isn’t the same desire to prove the mselves as the leader from the outset. My course mate shared with me her experience about her encounter with a head teacher in one of the schools, who shouted at her because she went to get the keys to a particular room, to pick a musical instrument which she was supposed to play for the children (she was not told until that morning). Women appear to be very emotional, which may be responsible for the way they behave at times. For instance, my HOD summoned me, on one occasion, and was abusive in her words, only to discover that she was wrong because she accused me, wrongly; however, she did not apologise; she was the head. My rights were trampled upon, but being a passive person, it was impossible to respond. Being prepared for leadership is necessary, which I suppose is responsible for the creation of the National Professional Qualification for Headship (NPQH) in England, in 1997, which is a mandatory requirement for headship (Bush and Oduro, 2006). Assigning responsibilities to teachers was also suggested (Mangin, 2009), in order to begin to prepare teachers for future headship responsibilities. This may not fit well, in my context, as most of those in leadership have held other responsibilities in lesser capacities, before becoming head teachers. All these strategies are helpful; however, in my opinion, assertiveness is not just to be taught, but is a skill to be learned. Furthermore it is contended that having greater confidence in themselves will reduce instances of unecesary aggression as they will be content in their role without the need to trample others. Family responsibility is another factor responsible for women’s lack of assertiveness and can be highly influential to their role in the workplace. From my experience, acknowledging that it is not easy for a woman to be a leader, yet if she has a family, is necessary as it is an important part of how she has developed as a leader. The woman is typically responsible for everything that happens on the home front, in addition to other responsibilities outside the home. The experience of this head teacher is to buttress this assertion. This head teacher leaves her house as early as 5.00am, in order to beat the traffic, that is, after she has prepared breakfast for her husband (no children yet). She leaves the office and arrives home around 7.00pm, because of the traffic. Her husband faithfully waits for her return, to cook his meals (he has no job) which involves her working within the home as well as at work; this she does everyday. She pays all the bills and provides food; her h usband does nothing and would not help even with house chores (he is the head of the family). This social limitation places greater pressures on the female leaders I went to see one head one morning; immediately she saw me she broke down and wept. This is one scenario out of so many that women go through. This may be an extreme scenario, but there are a lot of women heads who do not experience up to a fraction of this and yet lose control in the office, resulting in unnecessary conflict; surprisingly, the head teacher in the story above is not aggressive, neither is she passive; one would not even have the slightest inclination that she had a problem, if she had not opened up to discuss it. This behaviour is unique to her, as not every woman can tolerate that without reacting; this, I would argue is the result of individual differences in people. Individual differences in assertiveness are also crucial in how leaders are perceived and their success as a leader (Ames and Flynn, 2000) . The notion about the upbringing of the girl child that translates into assertive behaviour is also worth mentioning. There was a practice, in earlier times, that is still being practised by some families, in Nigeria. When a boy wants to get married, his parents secretly inquire about the girl’s family; the purpose is to find out the norms and values of her family; this they believe will tell them the kind of behaviour the girl is likely to exhibit. That will inform their decision on whether the boy should marry the girl, or not. Although the research was carried out on American head teachers, the girl’s childhood upbringing is also taken seriously, in Nigeria. However, it does not always follow; as parents would do everything possible and children will grow and choose their own path. That is not in any way implying that the girl child’s upbringing has no influence in adulthood. Having such a strong parental influence is relevant as this may impact on the way that a woman perceives herself and a female that has not been encouraged to carve a career for herself may face increased personal barriers to showing well placed assertiveness. Lack of assertiveness in women heads tend to create fear and make them insecure in their role. It could be because they feel intimidated by other colleagues, or lack confidence in their ability to carry out their responsibilities. Although leaders tend to put on a good front, they become emotionally exhausted in trying to stay on top of their game, something which is exacerbated when they also have family pressures. I recall with disdain how my head would add her workload to mine and demand I meet the deadline; with authority of course. Other staff members claimed that she saw me as a threat and was trying to frustrate me; it was almost the same experience with the other three women heads I worked with. The question is, if one is insecure, why take out their frustrations on other peopleAlthough the heads behave almost in the same way to all staff, men find it extremely difficult to tolerate such behaviours from female leaders. In the African culture, it is natural for men to be leade rs and awkward or strange for a woman to be leaders, where there are men; culture has placed the woman below the man. Unassertive behaviours by women leaders only strengthen the assumption that women do not posses leadership qualities. However, there are women who are outstanding in their leadership roles. According to Dickson (2012), the issue of equality is one of the most important characteristic of assertiveness. My action plan Having discussed the findings based on the available literature, it becomes imperative to map out a plan, based on my reflections of the module, especially regarding the aspect of assertiveness and training of potential female leaders. Although I do not like taking on the role of a leader, I am, most of the time, assigned responsibilities. As a passive person, I need to prepare myself for the future, especially in the aspect of assertiveness if this is not to create insecurities within myself. Conclusion Assertiveness seems to be a significant aspect of leadership; however, it would appear that little or no attention is accorded to the concept or acquiring skills associated with . It is one thing to be a leader and another to be an effective leader. Women in leadership positions have considerable challenges for the singular reason of being women. Exhibiting aggressive, passive or manipulative behaviour will only add to their challenges and the suppression of the male dominant figure of authority. The woman is known to possess a naturally soft, accommodating, friendly and gentle nature. Where a woman leader decides to be domineering, in order to command respect like men, she meets with conflict which is responsible for the unnecessary emotional stress and exhaustion leaders and their staff experience, which can be avoided. If women leaders can express strong feelings, without being aggressive, accept that they are not omnipotent, and compromise, sometimes without insisting on winning all the time, respect the feelings, privacy, and opinions of others, it is most likely that they will have a serene environment to work in, with full support from staff. Whenever people feel supported or acknowledged, there is likely to be advancement and also an indication that a situation has been handled assertively. The power of women, therefore, does not lie in the offices they occupy, nor their aggression, but in their ability to stay on top of the game by being assertive. References Ames, D. and Flynn, F. (2006). What’s good for the goose may not be as good for the gander: The benefits of self-monitoring for men and women in task groups and dyadic conflicts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 272-281 Ames, D. and Flynn, F. (2007). What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 307-324 Ames, D (2009) Pushing up to a point: Assertiveness and effectiveness in leadership and interpersonal dynamics. Research in Organisational Behaviour 29 (2009) 111 – 133 Astrong M (1991). How to be an even better Manager. London: Biddles Limited. P.27 Bush, T. and Oduro, G.K.T. (2006). New principals in Africa: Preparation, induction and practice. Journal of Educational Administration, 4(4), pp.359–75 Coleman, M. (2002) Women as headteachers: striking the balance, Stoke on Trent, Trentham Books. Dickinson, A (2012) A Woman in Your Own Right Assertiveness and You Quartet Books Hall, V. (1996) Dancing on the Ceiling: A study of women managers in education, London, Paul Chapman Mangin D. (2009) Promotion, professional practice and patient trust. In: Understanding and Responding to Pharmaceutical Promotion – a practical guide. Eds Mintzes B, Mangin DA, Hayes L. World Health Organisation / Health Action International 2009 Mathipa E. M. and Tsoka E. R. (2001) ‘Possible barriers to the advancement of women in positions of leadership in the education profession’, South African Journal of Education 21: 324-330 Oplatka, I, & Tamir, V. (2009). I don’t want to be a school head: women deputy heads’ insightful constructions of career advancement and retention, Educational Management Administration Leadership, 37, pp. 216-230. Philips, A. (2002) Assertiveness and the Manager’s Job, Radcliffe Publishing.

Standard Costing, Operational Performance Measures

CHAPTER 10 STANDARD COSTING, OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES 1. MANAGING COSTS 1. Standard-cost systems are used to help managers control the cost of operations. The system has three components: standard costs (i. e. , predetermined costs), actual costs, and the difference between the two figures (termed a variance). 2. A standard cost for each product cost category (materials, labor, and overhead) is calculated on a per-unit basis. ? This calculation considers the planned quantity of each input factor allowed (pounds, hours, etc. and the planned price for each input factor (price per pound, rate per hour, etc. ). The total planned cost is a mini, per-unit budgeted amount. †¢ After the actual costs are known, a report is generated that shows actual costs, planned costs, and related variances. A manager can examine the variance column quickly to ascertain which exceptions require attention. ? Following up on significant variances is called management by exception. Managers focus their efforts where they are most needed in the limited time available. 2. SETTING STANDARDS . Managers set standards by analyzing historical data. However, past data must be adjusted for expected changes in technology, the production process, inflation, and other similar factors. ? Managers also use task analysis to focus on how much a product should cost. †¢ Knowledgeable people such as engineers, purchasing agents, production supervisors, and accountants should be brought into the standard-setting process. Cross-functional teams are very useful here. 4. Two types of standards may be used: perfection standards and practical standards. Perfection (ideal) standards assume that production takes place in the ideal world: employees always work at peak performance, materials are never defective, and machines never break down. ? Although some managers feel that ideal standards give employees a goal to shoot for, many behavioral scientists believe that setting unattainable goals has a demotivating effect, as employees simply give up trying to reach the standard. ? Practical (attainable) standards are set high enough to encourage efficient and effective operations but not so high as to seem impossible. Behavioral scientists feel that practical standards have a more positive effect on the productivity of employees. ? Unlike variances computed with perfection standards, variances calculated when practical standards are employed tend to be more meaningful as they represent deviations from a realistic goal. †¢ Service firms also use standards. For example, McDonald's restaurants are noted for using standards, not only for quantities of material (amount of beef per burger) but also for the time allowed to serve customers at the drive-in window or counter. . VARIANCE ANALYSIS 5. Variance analysis involves calculating the actual amount of input used and comparing it to the budgeted amount of input that should have been used (i. e. , the standard cost allowed for actual output). The variance is then analyzed into its component parts. 6. Standards are established for: ? The amount of material required to produce a finished product (the standard material quantity). ? The anticipated delivered cost of materials (the standard material price). The number of hours normally needed to manufacture one unit of product (the standard direct-labor quantity). ? The estimated hourly cost of compensation (the standard labor rate). †¢ The following model can be used to calculate variances for direct materials (DM) and direct labor (DL): DM Price = (AQ Purchased x AP) – (AQ Purchased x SP) DM Quantity = (AQ Used x SP) – (SQ Used* x SP) DL Rate = (AQ x AP) – (AQ x SP) DL Efficiency = (AQ x SP) – (SQ* x SP) * Standard quantity for the actual production levelNotice that the price and rate variances use a similar approach, and the quantity and efficiency variances use a similar approach, with efficiency being another way to say â €Å"quantity of hours† allowed. †¢ Unfavorable variances arise when the actual cost per unit of input (e. g. , gallons, hours, etc. ) exceeds standard cost and when actual quantities used (e. g. , gallons, hours, etc. ) exceed standard quantities. The opposite situation gives rise to favorable variances. 4. VARIANCE INVESTIGATION 1.A manager does not have time to examine each variance; therefore, he or she must consider selected factors in deciding when an investigation should take place. The factors include one or more of the following: ? Size of the variance (in absolute and/or relative terms, such as $5,000 or 10% of standard cost) ? Frequency of occurrence ? An otherwise small variance may require investigation if it consistently occurs, as it may indicate an ongoing problem or an outdated standard. ? Trends ? Controllability (there is little point to investigate items over which managers have no control). Favorable variances ? A manager should investigate both favor able and unfavorable variances. A favorable variance with advertising expense, for instance, could lead to the conclusion that an insufficient amount is being spent on promotion, which could lead to a loss of customers. ? Costs and benefits (the decision to investigate involves a cost-benefit analysis, as a number of investigative costs are incurred). Some companies use a statistical approach to variance investigation by preparing a statistical control chart. These charts help to pinpoint random and nonrandom variances, with a statistically determined critical value being compared to a variance to determine whether an investigation is warranted. 5. BEHAVIORAL IMPACT OF STANDARD COSTING 1. Variances may be used to evaluate personnel, often with regard to salary increases, bonuses, and promotions. ? Such incentives can have positive and negative effects, as a bonus plan may prompt a manager to pursue actions that are not in the best interests of the organization. ? An example of detri mental behavior: A purchasing manager may purchase cheap material to create a favorable price variance.That material could be of poor quality, which might result in excess usage and problems with the finished product. 6. CONTROLLABILITY OF VARIANCES 2. It is rare that one person controls any event; however, it is often possible to identify the manager who is most able to influence a particular variance. These managers are often the following: ? Direct-material price variance—Purchasing manager ? Direct-material quantity variance—Production supervisor and/or production engineers ? Direct-labor rate variance—Production supervisor ? Direct-labor efficiency variance—Production supervisor . Variances often interact, making investigation and controllability difficult. For example, a labor efficiency variance may be caused by problems not only with labor but by problems with machinery and/or material. ? Managers sometimes trade-off variances, purposely incurring an unfavorable variance that is more than offset by favorable variances. 7. STANDARD COSTS AND PRODUCT COSTING 4. In a standard-cost system, costs flow through the same accounts in the general ledger as shown earlier in the text; however, they flow through at standard cost.In other words, Work-in-Process Inventory, Finished-Goods Inventory, and Cost of Goods Sold are carried at standard cost. 8. ADVANTAGES OF STANDARD COSTS 2. A standard-cost system has several advantages, as follows: ? Managers have a sensible comparison method at their disposal, one that looks at budgeted costs vs. actual costs at the actual level of output. ? Managers can practice management by exception. ? Variances provide a benchmark for performance evaluation and employee rewards. ? Standard costs provide a stable product cost.Actual costs may fluctuate erratically, whereas standard costs are changed only periodically. 9. CRITICISMS OF STANDARD COSTING IN TODAY'S MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENT 3. Criticisms of st andard costing in advanced manufacturing settings include: ? Variances are too aggregated and arrive too late to be useful. Variances should focus on activities, specific product lines, or production batches. ? Variances focus too much on the cost and efficiency of labor, which is becoming a relatively unimportant factor of production. Standard costs rely on a stable production environment, and flexible manufacturing systems have reduced this stability, with frequent switching among a variety of products on the same manufacturing line. ? Standards focus too much on cost minimization and not enough on product quality, customer service, and other contemporary issues. 10. OPERATIONAL CONTROL MEASURES 5. Many companies now focus on an increased number of performance measures, many of which are nonfinancial in nature. Examples often include: ? Customer-acceptance measures such as customer complaints, warranty claims, and product returns. Delivery cycle time, or the average time between t he receipt of a customer order and the delivery of goods. ? Manufacturing cycle time, or the total production time per unit. ? Manufacturing cycle efficiency, or processing time divided by the sum of processing time, inspection time, waiting time, and move time. †¢ To judge how well or poorly a company is performing, many firms use benchmarking, which involves comparing existing performance levels against those of either other organizations or other units within the same organization. †¢

Nursing Medicine Essay

Medical physicians and nurses have well-built passions about their range of contributions to the health of people. They are concerned with how expert ideas and welfares are to be weighed against the necessity to maneuver a system that works for the greater good of the public. Nurses and physicians work hand in hand for the cure and betterment of their patients; but what makes them different from each other? Some say it’s better to be a doctor for one has the capability to save lives; others say it’s more fulfilling to be a nurse because you not only help offer cure for the sick, you also give them genuine care. Moreover, applying and promoting caring values in the nurses’ practice is not only necessary to their own health as nurses, but its implication is also deeply tributary to finding meaning in their work. Upholding caring values in the nurses’ every day practice helps go above the nurse from a state where nursing is thought as just a job to that of a rewarding profession. While many people see medicine as a better profession than nursing, they don’t realize that nurses also encompass the competence and deep levels of character. The changes in the delivery systems of health care around the world have intensified nurses’ workloads and responsibilities. Nurses must know how to deal with patients’ increased acuteness and intricacy with regards to their health care condition. Regardless of such hardships, nurses are able to find ways to conserve their caring practice. Giving care to different individuals several hours a day is no easy job. This paper will enlighten people to what the nursing profession really is by discussing the theory of human caring. Jean Watson’s caring theory can be seen as essential to this aim. While the sole focus of medicine is to diagnose a patient and cure his/her disorder or disease, nursing entails giving care to the patient. Without care, the cure for the disease would be possible, but the illness would still linger because health would still not be attained without caring. The core of nursing is caring, while that of medicine is cure. This paper doesn’t imply that medicine does not include caring for patients. It’s just that nursing implies caring in a deeper, more attached way. The nursing profession involves working long hours with the sick, developing rapport in every possible way, and acknowledging every patient whatever their attitude or race may be. Nursing and caring have always been thought of as acting in unison. Most people choose nursing as a line of work because of their longing to care for other persons. Watson’s caring theory not only allows the nurse to live out the art of caring, it also seeks to offer compassion to ease families’ and patients’ suffering, and to support their dignity and healing. According to Watson (2001), the chief elements of her assumption are: the carative factors, the transpersonal caring relationship, and the caring moment or caring occasion. These fundamentals are described later in the paper, and will be exemplified and viewed in light of the nursing and medical profession. The caring theory or model can also be measured as an ethical/moral and philosophical foundation for professional nursing and a division of the vital focus for nursing at the corrective level. A replica of caring includes a call for both science and art; it provides a structure that intersects and embraces with science, humanities, art, spirituality, and a new magnitude of body, mind, and spirit. Nursing and medicine is developing openly as a core to human phenomenon of the nursing practice. Carative factors are viewed as a guide for the nursing core. Watson uses the word carative in contrast with medicine’s curative factors. She uses the carative factors for the reason of honoring the human magnitude of the work of nursing and the subjective experiences and inner life world of the patients that they serve. The carative factors have ten elements: faith-hope, humanistic-altruistic system of value, expressing positive and negative feelings, helping-trusting human care relationship, transpersonal teaching-learning, creative problem solving caring process, human needs assistance, supportive, protective and corrective physical, mental, societal and spiritual environment, and existential phenomenological spiritual forces. This however evolved into the caritas process which has a deeper spiritual magnitude and dimension which means to treasure and to give exceptional loving attention (Watson, 2001). Transpersonal Caring regards the harmony of life and relations that move in concentric circles of caring from a person, to others, to the society, to the world, to our planet, and to the universe. Transpersonal caring is established in a happening or actual caring instance. It shows concern for the life within. The patient is regarded as complete and as a whole, in spite of disease or illness (Watson 2003). The transpersonal nurse looks for a connection to embrace the soul or the spirit of the patient, by way of healing and caring (Watson 2003). Caring in the nursing career takes place each time a nurse to patient contact is achieved. Unlike in medicine, some doctors may look at a patient and just prescribe a drug, after that, their deal is finished. In contrast, the nurse seeks to enter the patient’s world in order to draw closer and know the patient as a caring individual, and that it is from this epistemology that the caring of nursing begins to unfold (Schoenhofer 2002). This caring makes a big difference to the well being of each patient. Caring may happen without curing, but curing cannot take place without caring (Watson 2003). It is with that conviction that nurses are concerned for patients in the anticipation that they add to the well being or cure of that patient. Hope may be the only support an ill person has to keep their optimism. Nurses care adequately to credit that hope and hold up for the patient. They have the vision that patient is complete and whole. The one being cared and one caring are unified (Watson 1997). It’s experiencing human being connection at a deeper level than a bodily contact (Watson 2003). This connection describes how the nurse goes further than an objective evaluation, presenting concerns toward the person’s deeper and subjective meaning concerning their own health care condition. The nurse’s caring realization becomes vital for the association and understanding of the other person’s point of view. This approach highlights the exclusivity of both the nurse and the person, and also the mutuality linking the two persons, which is primary to the bond. As such, the one cared-for and the one caring cooperate in connection in mutual search for wholeness and meaning perhaps for the sacred transcendence of suffering (Watson, 2001). The term transpersonal means to go further than an individual’s own ego and the here and now, while it allows him/her to arrive at a deeper spiritual connection in promoting the patient’s healing and comfort. Lastly, the objective of a transpersonal caring association corresponds to enhancing, protecting, and preserving the person’s humanity, dignity, inner harmony, and wholeness. According to Jean Watson (1988, 1999), a caring occasion is the moment (central point in time and space) when the patient and the nurse come as one in such a way that an instance for human caring is formed. Both persons, with their exceptional and phenomenal fields, have the likelihood to move toward together in a human-to-human contract. The one being cared for and the one caring for are predisposed by the actions and choices decided within the affiliation. For Watson (1988, 1999), a unique field correspond to the person’s frame of orientation or the entirety of human experience consisting of bodily sensations, feelings, spiritual beliefs ,thoughts, goals, environmental considerations, expectations and meanings of an individual’s perceptions, all of which are based upon one’s present moment, and one’s anticipated future. Not just a goal for the cared for, Watson (1999) insists that the nurse as well needs to be conscious of her own awareness and genuine attendance of being in a caring instant with his/her patient. Furthermore, in cooperation, the one cared for and the one caring can be predisposed by the caring moment throughout the actions and choices decided inside the relationship, thus, influencing and becoming a fraction of their own life history. The caring event becomes transpersonal when it permits for the occurrence of the spirit of both, then the occasion of the moment expands the restrictions of openness and has the capability to increase human capacities (Watson, 1999). Nursing can enlarge its obtainable role, long-lasting to make offerings to health care inside the contemporary model by developing its opening health strengths and caring healing that have always been in attendance on the edges (Watson, 1999). Nursing is a caring profession that is privileged as the spirit-filled, spiritual practice that it is. I deem it is a mission for a particular spiritual human being who cares about the spirituality of other persons. The humanistic nature of nursing is reflected in the caring replica. Caring is the innermost concept in the discipline of nursing. Caring may seem simple, but it entails these many aspects and it takes a lot of effort to render this, especially to people who we don’t even know. It’s easier to diagnose a patient and just prescribe some medications; it’s another story when you try to have a deep relationship with a patient while still upholding your profession. Doctors leave it to the nurse to care for the patients, because nurses are the ones who have an encounter with them 99% of the time. They are the ones who know the patients condition, even their emotions at times. Moreover, not all patients are considerate and thankful for a nurse’s efforts. Nurses must keep their moods up and not be affected by the ups and downs of their tiresome profession. At the end of the day, they still hold their faces up high and continue caring for every other patient they will be encountering in the future. Caring entails love and loving is not an easy thing to do. It is said that while a nurse enters into a patient’s room, a compelling field of expectation is produced. In this deeper, more stretched out way of thinking about the power, energy, and beauty of love, a caring moment (Watson, 1999b) becomes a vibrational field of cosmic love full of life that radiates mutuality and reciprocity, which transcends space, time, and physicality sustaining and confirming our humanity and our association with the Levinas. The infinity of the whole universe (Quinn, 1992). This ethic of caring and loving becomes the first philosophy for sustaining and facing the infinity of the nursing profession. If nurses follow this ethical order, nursing has a serious role in moving humanity in the direction of the omega point, ever closer to God and the unexplained blessed circle of loving, living, dying, trusting, and being. Lastly, a quote to ponder on the care illuminated by the nursing profession in contrast with that of medicine: â€Å"The heart is as broad as the sky, because it can embrace joy and pain side by side. † Even in the midst of hard to deal with patients, nurses still choose to care.

What is Psychopathy?

Psychopathy is a problem for society as a whole, seeing that it could easily lead individuals that are suffering from this personality disorder to violent and criminal acts. The bases of psychopathy are known to be biological, sociological, and psychological. Whereas amygdala dysfunction is thought to be responsible for psychopathy, an individual’s frustration with his or her low socioeconomic status may also lead him or her to commit acts of crime revealing psychopathic features in the process. Psychologists believe that low IQ may similarly be responsible for psychopathic behavior. Additionally, they have extensively studied personality traits, such as those on the Big Five personality dimensions, to understand psychopathic traits in particular. Apart from the above, this paper also discusses therapeutic interventions with respect to psychopathy. Introduction In children as well as adults, psychopathy is defined on the basis of three dimensions: (1) an â€Å"arrogant deceitful interpersonal style†¦including glibness or superficial charm, self-centeredness or a grandiose sense of self-worth, lying, conning, manipulation, and deceitfulness; (2) deficient affective experience†¦including low remorse, low guilt, a weak conscience, callousness, low empathy, shallow affect, and a failure to accept responsibility for actions (denials, excuses, etc. ; and (3) an impulsive or irresponsible behavioral style†¦including boredom, excitement-seeking, a lack of long-term goals, impulsiveness, failing to think before acting, and a parasitic lifestyle (debts, unsatisfactory work habits, etc. )† (Cooke & Michie, 2001). No wonder, psychopathy is rigorously investigated with reference to criminal behavior. Psychologists are also very interested in learning about the roots of psychopathy in children. These studies are based on the premise that it is impossible to try to solve a problem without a thorough understanding of its roots. Psychopathy in Literature Blair (2001) explains that the roots of psychopathy may very well lie in amygdala dysfunction. The amygdala is related to the emotional response, in particular, the flight or fight response to threats. With impairment in this essential area of the human brain, the individual is unable to make appropriate emotional responses to threats. The emotional dysfunction in the person suffering from psychopathy is enough to serve as evidence that the parts of the brain connected with emotions are impaired in the case of those suffering from psychopathy (Blair). Moreover, Blair connects the conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder with psychopathy to describe that there are similarities between the problems. The author adds to our previous definition of psychopathy by stating that those that are suffering from this particular disorder reveal â€Å"emotional shallowness† in addition to antisocial behaviors that are often marked by aggression and taking of offence (Blair). Antisocial behavior is often related to the Intelligence Quotient as well as the socioeconomic status of the person that displays it. Thus, psychopathy may similarly be connected with the IQ and socioeconomic status of those that suffer from it. In particular, those who are less intelligent and who also suffer from lacks due to their present socioeconomic status, may express their emotional frustrations through antisocial behavior, thereby getting very close to the definition of psychopathy (Blair). Rutter (2005) argues that although antisocial behavior is not exactly the same as psychopathy, the importance of investigating the latter lies in the evidence that those that are classified as â€Å"psychopathic offenders† tend to begin their â€Å"criminal careers† at an early age. Besides, these individuals â€Å"are more likely to become persistent offenders than the criminals without psychopathy features† (Rutter). What is more, psychopathic offenders or criminals are often known to be violent and to resist therapeutic intervention. The author also mentions new instruments that have been developed to measure the traits of psychopathy in children as well as adults. These instruments include the â€Å"Antisocial Process Screening Device† (Rutter). Also according to Rutter, child psychiatrists and child psychologists have shown reluctance in diagnosing psychopathy in children and adolescents, based on the belief that the diagnosis might inevitably lead young individuals to bad outcomes in the days to come. On the other hand, it is thought that adults that are suffering from the personality disorder we understand as psychopathy, may have had the problem traits even in childhood. Hence, it is also believed to be easier to start therapeutic programs in childhood so as to help the young in avoiding bad outcomes in future (Rutter). Salekin & Frick (2005) state that young individuals with psychopathic characteristics may be suffering from a particular set of cognitive as well as affective deficits. Knowledge of the â€Å"specific causal pathway† of psychopathy in children and adolescents could prove to be consequential in the design of â€Å"individualized interventions† for such youths (Salekin & Frick). After all, the most important reason why psychologists would like to understand more about psychopathic traits in youths is that these traits help to â€Å"predict future antisocial, criminal, and violent behavior† (Salekin & Frick). Psychologists are also aware that children with psychopathic traits exhibit the â€Å"highest rates of conduct problems, self-reported delinquency, and police contacts† (Salekin & Frick). Salekin, Rogers, & Machin (2001) conducted a study on youths with psychopathic traits. This research was conducted through a survey that was sent out to more than five hundred clinical psychologists, asking them to describe psychopathic traits in youths; gender differences between youths with psychopathic traits; and also the kinds of interventions that psychologists had used with such youths. The results of the study revealed that children with psychopathic features tend to share these features with adults that are also suffering from psychopathy. The mean age of the youngster with psychopathic traits is a little over fourteen years. The average youth with psychopathic features has an 8th grade level education. Moreover, there are more boys than girls showing psychopathic traits. Although the boys with psychopathic characteristics are more aggressive, and often violent; girls with psychopathic features tend to be less aggressive. Such girls reveal their psychopathic traits through antisocial behavior as well as hostility (Salekin, Rogers, & Machin). The study further revealed the prevailing belief of clinical psychologists that it is quite difficult for them to treat psychopathy. Therapeutic interventions are also believed to work more effectively for youths as compared to adults. This is because the personality of children is often thought to be more fluid than the personality of adults. Hence, clinical psychologists reported that they had seen â€Å"moderate-to-marked gains† of psychotherapy in children and adolescents treated for psychopathy (Salekin, Rogers, & Machin). Girls in general were seen to benefit more from psychotherapy than boys. Clinical psychologists found a marked reduction in violence, delinquency, in addition to verbal aggression, even after one year of psychotherapeutic treatment for children and adolescents suffering from psychopathy. Even so, the psychologists reported that antisocial behaviors are sometimes hidden in the natures of the youths and â€Å"outside the purview of psychotherapists† (Salekin, Rogers, & Machin). Hence, this study called for further research to augment our understanding of psychotherapeutic treatment for youths with psychopathic features. Farrington (2005) points out that even though psychotherapeutic treatment for psychopathy should begin early, and should be extensive, there are various problems that make therapeutic intervention difficult. First, â€Å"psychopathy is extremely persistent throughout life,† and so, even though clinical psychologists have observed improvements in youths with psychopathic features after psychotherapy, the problem traits of such youths may not entirely go away (Farrington). Second, psychopathy is also believed to have a biological cause, i. e. amygdala dysfunction, and biological causes cannot be reversed through psychological interventions. Furthermore, psychopaths are manipulative individuals, and they are often able to lie to and deceive psychotherapists so as to become â€Å"treatment-resistant† (Farrington). Farrington also mentions the Big Five personality dimensions that psychologists have often used in an attempt to understand the problem traits of individuals suffering from psychopathy, before they can devise better therapeutic models to help them. The five personality dimensions are: â€Å"Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness† (Farrington). Out of these five dimensions, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism are most relevant to studies on psychopathy. The author describes how individuals with psychopathic characteristics are expected to fare on the Big Five personality dimensions: Agreeableness includes straightforwardness (with deceitfulness at the negative end), altruism (v. exploitativeness), modesty (v. arrogance), and tendermindedness (v. callousness). Conscientiousness includes dutifulness (with poor dependability at the negative end), achievement striving (v. aimlessness), self-discipline (v. hedonism), and deliberation (v. arelessness). Neuroticism includes impulsiveness and angry hostility, although it also includes self-consciousness (with glibness and shamelessness at the negative end) and vulnerability (with fearlessness at the negative end). Conclusion Indeed, with better understanding of the personality traits of individuals suffering from psychopathy – a problem with biological, sociolo gical, and psychological roots – psychologists are in a better position to help them. Yet, it is bad news for psychotherapists that psychopathy may have a biological cause that they would not be able to work their way around. Moreover, psychopaths are often able to escape treatment by conning and lying during psychotherapeutic interventions. Nevertheless, even the knowledge that psychopaths are able to do this is essential in devising new treatments for them. Our literature review has revealed the importance of understanding psychopathy especially in children and adolescents. Psychologists believe that early intervention is crucial in psychopathy, and youths that are suffering from this personality disorder should be treated extensively. This is because personalities are understood to be more fluid in youth. By helping children and adolescents to change their problem traits, psychologists may be able to save them from negative outcomes in the future. All the same, psychologists have reported that the problem traits of children and adolescents with psychopathic features may never entirely go away. Children and adolescents with psychopathic traits may easily turn out to be criminals in = future. Hence, it is even more important to understand the problem of psychopathy now before better treatments may be developed for the problem in question.